Anonymity and Democracy
Absence as Presence in the Public Sphere
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21878/compolitica.2021.11.2.584Keywords:
Anonimity, Public Sphere, Democratic TheoryAbstract
Embora o anonimato seja uma característica central das democracias liberais - não apenas no voto secreto, mas também no financiamento de campanhas, publicação de textos políticos, protestos mascarados e pichações - até agora não foi conceitualmente fundamentado na teoria democrática. Ao invés disso, é tratado como um conceito autoexplicativo relacionado à privacidade. Para superar essa omissão, este artigo desenvolve uma compreensão complexa do anonimato no contexto da teoria democrática. Com base na literatura diversa sobre o anonimato na participação política, explica o anonimato como uma performance de identidade altamente dependente do contexto que expressa sentimentos privados na esfera pública. O caráter contraditório de seus elementos centrais - negação e criação de identidade - resulta em três conjuntos de liberdades contraditórias. O anonimato permite (a) inclusão e exclusão, (b) subversão e submissão e (c) honestidade e fraude. Este caráter contraditório das affordances do anonimato ilustra o papel ambíguo do anonimato na democracia.
References
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FERRY, Anne. “Anonymity”: The Literary History of a Word. New Literary History, v. 33, n. 2, p. 193–214, 2002.
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GARDNER, James. Anonymity and Democratic Citizenship. William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, v. 19, n. 4, p. 927–957, 2011.
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GRIFFIN, Robert. Anonymity and Authorship. New Literary History, v. 30, n. 4, p. 877–895, 1999.
GROENEVELD, Elizabeth. Are We All Pussy Riot? On Narratives of Feminist Return and the Limits of Transnational Solidarity. Feminist Theory, v. 16, n. 3, p. 289–307, 2015.
HABERMAS, Jürgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992.
HALPIN, Harry. The Philosophy of Anonymous: Ontological Politics without Identity. Radical Philosophy, v. 176, p. 19–28, 2012.
HUNTER, Christopher. Political Privacy and Online Politics: How E-Campaigning Threatens Voter Privacy. First Monday, v. 7, n. 2, 2002.
JONKER, Hugo; PIETERS, Wolter. Anonymity in Voting Revisited. In: CHAUM, David et al. (org.). Towards Trustworthy Elections: New Directions in Electronic Voting. Berlin: IAVOSS/Springer-Verlag, 2010. p. 216–230.
KINNEY, Alison. Hood. New York: Bloomsbury, 2016.
KOPLEY, Emily. Anon Is Not Dead: Towards a History of Anonymous Authorship in Early-Twentieth-Century Britain. Studies in Book Culture, v. 7, n. 2, p. 1–23, 2016.
KURAN, Timur. Mitigating the Tyranny of Public Opinion: Anonymous Discourse and the Ethic of Sincerity. Constitutional Political Economy, v. 4, n. 1, p. 41–78, 1993.
LEITNER, John. Anonymity, Privacy, and Expressive Equal- ity: Name Verification and Korean Constitutional Rights in Cyberspace. Journal of Korean Law, v. 14, n. June, p. 167–212, 2015.
LYNCH, Michael; MADONNA, Anthony. Viva Voce: Implica tions from the Disappearing Voice Vote. Social Science Quarterly, v. 94, n. 2, p. 530–550, [s.d.].
MACCALLUM, Gerald. Negative and Positive Freedom. Philosophical Review, v. 76, n. 3, p. 312–334, 1967.
MARX, Gary. What’s in a Name? Some Reflections on the Sociology of Anonymity. The Information Society, v. 15, n. 2, p. 99–112, 1999.
MCCARTHY, Matthew. Toward a Free Information Movement. Sociological Forum, v. 30, n. 2, p. 439–458, 2015.
MCDONALD, Kevin. From Indymedia to Anonymous: Rethinking Action and Identity in Digital Cultures. Information, Communication & Society, v. 18, n. 8, p. 968–982, 2015.
MILL, John Stuart. On Liberty and Considerations on Representative Government. Oxford: Blackwell, 1946.
MOORE, Alfred. Anonymity, Pseudonymity, and Deliberation: Why Not Everything Should Be Connected. The Journal of Political Philosophy, p. 1–24, 2017.
MORRIS, Adam. Whoever, Whatever: On Anonymity as Resistance to Empire. Parallax, v. 18, n. 4, p. 106–120, 2012.
NGUYEN, Mimi Thi. The Hoodie as Sign, Screen, Expectation, and Force. Signs, v. 40, n. 4, p. 791–816, 2015.
NISSENBAUM, Helen. Toward an Approach to Privacy in Public: Challenges of Information Technology. Ethics & Behavior, v. 7, n. 3, p. 207–219, 1997.
NISSENBAUM, Helen. The Meaning of Anonymity in an Information Age. The Information Society: An International Journal, v. 15, n. 2, p. 141–144, 1999.
NISSENBAUM, Helen. Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010.
PAPACHARISSI, Zizi. A Private Sphere: Democracy in a Digital Age. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010.
PFITZMANN, Andreas; HANSEN, Marit. No A Terminology for Talking about Privacy by Data Minimization: Anonymity, Un- linkability, Undetectability, Unobservability, Pseudonymity, and Identity Management. [s.d.].
REIMAN, Jeffrey. Privacy, Intimacy, and Personhood. Philosophy & Public Affairs, v. 6, n. 1, p. 26–44, 1976.
RODRIGUEZ, Armado; CLAIR, Robin. Graffiti as Communication: Exploring the Discursive Tensions of Anonymous Texts. The Southern Communication Journal, v. 1, p. 1–15, 1999.
RUIZ, Pollyanna. Revealing Power: Masked Protest and the Blank Figure. Cultural Politics, v. 9, n. 3, p. 263–279, 2013.
SCHMITZ, Rachel. Intersections of Hate: Exploring the Transecting Dimensions of Race, Religion, Gender, and Family in Ku Klux Klan Web Sites. Sociological Focus, v. 49, n. 3, p. 200–214, 2016.
SCOTT, Craig. To Reveal or Not to Reveal: A Theoretical Model of Anonymous Communication. Communication Theory, v. 8, n. 4, p. 381–407, 1998.
SPIEGEL, Jennifer. Masked Protest in the Age of Austerity: State Violence, Anonymous Bodies, and Resistance ‘In the Red’’’. Critical Inquiry, v. 41, n. 4, p. 786–810, 2015.
STEINHOLT, Yngvar. Kitten Heresy: Lost Contexts of Pussy Riot’s Punk Prayer. Popular Music and Society, v. 36, n. 1, p. 120–124, 2013.
SULER, John. The Online Disinhibition Effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, v. 7, n. 3, p. 321–326, 2004.
TIQQUN. How Is It to Be Done. 2008. Disponível em: http://cnqzu.com/library/%0APolitics/Invisible-Committee-How-it-be-done.pdf.
WAGNER DECEW, Judith. The Feminist Critique of Privacy: Past Arguments and New Social Understandings. In: ROESSLER, Beaate; MOKROSINSKA, Dorota (org.). Social Dimensions of Privacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. p. 85–103.
WARREN, Samuel; BRANDEIS, Louis. The Right to Privacy. Harvard Law Review, v. 4, n. 5, p. 193–220, 2016.
WESTIN, Alan. The Origins of Modern Claims to Privacy. In: Philosophical Dimensions of Privacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 56–74.
WILDE, Oscar. The Critic as Artist (Upon the Importance of Doing Nothing and Discussing Everything). Stockport: Mondial, 2007.
WOO, Jisuk. The Right Not to Be Identified: Privacy and Anonymity in the Interactive Media Environment. New Media & Society, v. 8, n. 6, p. 949–967, 2006.
ZAKARIA, Rafia. Veil. New York: Bloomsbury, 2017.
ALCOFF, Linda. The Problem of Speaking for Others. Cultural Critique, n. 20, p. 5–32, 1991.
ASENBAUM, Hans. Cyborg activism: Exploring the reconfigurations of democratic subjectivity in Anonymous. New Media & Society, v. 20, n. 4, p. 1543–1563, 2018.
BAKHTIN, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
BARENDT, Eric. Anonymous Speech: Literature, Law and Politic. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2016.
BARTLETT, Jamie. The dark net. London: Windmill Books, 2015.
BASTOS, Marco; MERCEA, Dan. The Brexit botnet and user-generated hyperpartisan news. Social science computer review, p. 1–18, 2017.
BAXTER, Hillary. Masquerade, Pride, Drag, Love and Marriage. Deborah Be ed. [s.l.] : Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 2015.
BERLIN, Isaiah. Two Concepts of Liberty. In: Four Essays on Liberty. Oxford: Oxford University Press,[s.d.]. p. 118–172.
BESSI, Alessandro; FERRARA, Emilio. Social Bots Distort the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election Online Discussion. First Monday, v. 21, n. 1, p. 1–14, 2016.
BEYER, Jessica. The Emergence of a Freedom of Information Movement: Anonymous,WikiLeaks,the Pirate Party,and Iceland. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, v. 19, n. 2, p. 141–54, 2014.
BLAU, Adrian. Against Positive and Negative Freedom. Political Theory, v. 32, n. 4, p. 547–553, 2004.
BLEE, Kathleen; MCDOWELL, Amy. The Duality of Spectacle and Secrecy: A Case Study of Fraternalism in the 1920s US Ku Klux Klan. Ethnic and racial studies, v. 36, n. 2, p. 249–265, 2013.
BRUCE, Caitlin. The Balaclava as Affect Generator: Free Pussy Riot Protests and Transnational Iconicity. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, v. 12, n. 1, p. 42–62, 2015.
BRUNER, Lane. Carnivalesque Protest and the Humorless State. Text and Performance Quarterly, v. 25, n. 5, p. 136–155, 2005.
BUCHSTEIN, Hubertus. Bytes That Bite: The Internet and Deliberative Democracy. Constellations, v. 4, n. 2, p. 248–263, 1997.
BUTLER, Ella. The Anthropology of Anonymity: Toilet Graffiti at the University of Melbourne. Research Paper Series of the University of Melbourne. School of Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies. Melbourne, v. 30, 2006.
CAMBRE, Maria-Carolina. Becoming Anonymous: A Politics of Masking. In: VENKATESH, Vivek; WALLIN, Jason; CASTRO, Juan Carlos; LEWIS, Jason Edward (org.). Educational, Psychological, and Behavioral Considerations in Niche Online Communities. Hershey: Information Science Reference, 2014. p. 297–321.
CARDELL, Kylie; MAGUIRE, Emma. Hoax Politics: Blogging, Betrayal, and the Intimate Public of A Gay Girl in Damascus. Biography, v. 38, n. 2, p. 205–221, 2015.
COHEN, Jean. Redescribing Privacy: Identity, Difference, and the Abortion Controversy. Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, v. 3, n. 3, p. 43–117, 1992.
COLEMAN, Gabriella. Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous. London: Verso, 2014.
DA VINCI, Leonardo. The Da Vinci Notebooks. London: Profile Books, 2005.
DIAZ, Claudia; SEYS, Stefaan; CLAESSENS, Joris; PRENEEL, Bart. Towards Measuring Anonymity. In: DINGLEDINE, Roger; SYVERSON, Paul (org.). Privacy Enhancing Technologies. Berlin: Springer, 2003. p. 54–68.
DOVI, Suzanne. In Praise of Exclusion. The Journal of Politics, v. 71, n. 3, p. 1172–1186, 2009.
EKSTRAND, Victoria Smith; JEYARAM, Cassandra Imfeld. Our Founding Anonymity: Anonymous Speech During the Constitutional Debate. American Journalism, v. 28, n. 3, p. 35–60, 2011.
FERRY, Anne. “Anonymity”: The Literary History of a Word. New Literary History, v. 33, n. 2, p. 193–214, 2002.
FRASER, Nancy. Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy. Social Text, n. 25/26, p. 56–80, 1990.
FREIRE, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30th Anniv ed. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group.
FROMM, Erich. Escape from Freedom. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1941.
GARDNER, James. Anonymity and Democratic Citizenship. William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, v. 19, n. 4, p. 927–957, 2011.
GOFFMAN, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday, 1956.
GRIFFIN, Robert. Anonymity and Authorship. New Literary History, v. 30, n. 4, p. 877–895, 1999.
GROENEVELD, Elizabeth. Are We All Pussy Riot? On Narratives of Feminist Return and the Limits of Transnational Solidarity. Feminist Theory, v. 16, n. 3, p. 289–307, 2015.
HABERMAS, Jürgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992.
HALPIN, Harry. The Philosophy of Anonymous: Ontological Politics without Identity. Radical Philosophy, v. 176, p. 19–28, 2012.
HUNTER, Christopher. Political Privacy and Online Politics: How E-Campaigning Threatens Voter Privacy. First Monday, v. 7, n. 2, 2002.
JONKER, Hugo; PIETERS, Wolter. Anonymity in Voting Revisited. In: CHAUM, David et al. (org.). Towards Trustworthy Elections: New Directions in Electronic Voting. Berlin: IAVOSS/Springer-Verlag, 2010. p. 216–230.
KINNEY, Alison. Hood. New York: Bloomsbury, 2016.
KOPLEY, Emily. Anon Is Not Dead: Towards a History of Anonymous Authorship in Early-Twentieth-Century Britain. Studies in Book Culture, v. 7, n. 2, p. 1–23, 2016.
KURAN, Timur. Mitigating the Tyranny of Public Opinion: Anonymous Discourse and the Ethic of Sincerity. Constitutional Political Economy, v. 4, n. 1, p. 41–78, 1993.
LEITNER, John. Anonymity, Privacy, and Expressive Equal- ity: Name Verification and Korean Constitutional Rights in Cyberspace. Journal of Korean Law, v. 14, n. June, p. 167–212, 2015.
LYNCH, Michael; MADONNA, Anthony. Viva Voce: Implica tions from the Disappearing Voice Vote. Social Science Quarterly, v. 94, n. 2, p. 530–550, [s.d.].
MACCALLUM, Gerald. Negative and Positive Freedom. Philosophical Review, v. 76, n. 3, p. 312–334, 1967.
MARX, Gary. What’s in a Name? Some Reflections on the Sociology of Anonymity. The Information Society, v. 15, n. 2, p. 99–112, 1999.
MCCARTHY, Matthew. Toward a Free Information Movement. Sociological Forum, v. 30, n. 2, p. 439–458, 2015.
MCDONALD, Kevin. From Indymedia to Anonymous: Rethinking Action and Identity in Digital Cultures. Information, Communication & Society, v. 18, n. 8, p. 968–982, 2015.
MILL, John Stuart. On Liberty and Considerations on Representative Government. Oxford: Blackwell, 1946.
MOORE, Alfred. Anonymity, Pseudonymity, and Deliberation: Why Not Everything Should Be Connected. The Journal of Political Philosophy, p. 1–24, 2017.
MORRIS, Adam. Whoever, Whatever: On Anonymity as Resistance to Empire. Parallax, v. 18, n. 4, p. 106–120, 2012.
NGUYEN, Mimi Thi. The Hoodie as Sign, Screen, Expectation, and Force. Signs, v. 40, n. 4, p. 791–816, 2015.
NISSENBAUM, Helen. Toward an Approach to Privacy in Public: Challenges of Information Technology. Ethics & Behavior, v. 7, n. 3, p. 207–219, 1997.
NISSENBAUM, Helen. The Meaning of Anonymity in an Information Age. The Information Society: An International Journal, v. 15, n. 2, p. 141–144, 1999.
NISSENBAUM, Helen. Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010.
PAPACHARISSI, Zizi. A Private Sphere: Democracy in a Digital Age. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010.
PFITZMANN, Andreas; HANSEN, Marit. No A Terminology for Talking about Privacy by Data Minimization: Anonymity, Un- linkability, Undetectability, Unobservability, Pseudonymity, and Identity Management. [s.d.].
REIMAN, Jeffrey. Privacy, Intimacy, and Personhood. Philosophy & Public Affairs, v. 6, n. 1, p. 26–44, 1976.
RODRIGUEZ, Armado; CLAIR, Robin. Graffiti as Communication: Exploring the Discursive Tensions of Anonymous Texts. The Southern Communication Journal, v. 1, p. 1–15, 1999.
RUIZ, Pollyanna. Revealing Power: Masked Protest and the Blank Figure. Cultural Politics, v. 9, n. 3, p. 263–279, 2013.
SCHMITZ, Rachel. Intersections of Hate: Exploring the Transecting Dimensions of Race, Religion, Gender, and Family in Ku Klux Klan Web Sites. Sociological Focus, v. 49, n. 3, p. 200–214, 2016.
SCOTT, Craig. To Reveal or Not to Reveal: A Theoretical Model of Anonymous Communication. Communication Theory, v. 8, n. 4, p. 381–407, 1998.
SPIEGEL, Jennifer. Masked Protest in the Age of Austerity: State Violence, Anonymous Bodies, and Resistance ‘In the Red’’’. Critical Inquiry, v. 41, n. 4, p. 786–810, 2015.
STEINHOLT, Yngvar. Kitten Heresy: Lost Contexts of Pussy Riot’s Punk Prayer. Popular Music and Society, v. 36, n. 1, p. 120–124, 2013.
SULER, John. The Online Disinhibition Effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, v. 7, n. 3, p. 321–326, 2004.
TIQQUN. How Is It to Be Done. 2008. Disponível em: http://cnqzu.com/library/%0APolitics/Invisible-Committee-How-it-be-done.pdf.
WAGNER DECEW, Judith. The Feminist Critique of Privacy: Past Arguments and New Social Understandings. In: ROESSLER, Beaate; MOKROSINSKA, Dorota (org.). Social Dimensions of Privacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. p. 85–103.
WARREN, Samuel; BRANDEIS, Louis. The Right to Privacy. Harvard Law Review, v. 4, n. 5, p. 193–220, 2016.
WESTIN, Alan. The Origins of Modern Claims to Privacy. In: Philosophical Dimensions of Privacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 56–74.
WILDE, Oscar. The Critic as Artist (Upon the Importance of Doing Nothing and Discussing Everything). Stockport: Mondial, 2007.
WOO, Jisuk. The Right Not to Be Identified: Privacy and Anonymity in the Interactive Media Environment. New Media & Society, v. 8, n. 6, p. 949–967, 2006.
ZAKARIA, Rafia. Veil. New York: Bloomsbury, 2017.
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Published
2022-02-22
How to Cite
Asenbaum, H., Santos, C. D., & Veloso, L. (2022). Anonymity and Democracy: Absence as Presence in the Public Sphere. Compolítica, 11(2), 129–166. https://doi.org/10.21878/compolitica.2021.11.2.584
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